Trends and Movements

Trends and Movements 

Literary modernism, or modernist literature, has its origins in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, mainly in Europe and North America, and is characterized by a self-conscious break with traditional ways of writing, in both poetry and prose fiction.

The horrors of World War I (1914-19), with its accompanying atrocities and senselessness became the catalyst for the Modernist movement in literature and art.Modernist authors felt betrayed by the war, believing the institutions in which they were taught to believe had led the civilized world into a bloody conflict. They no longer considered these institutions as reliable means to access the meaning of life, and therefore turned within themselves to discover the answers.

Characteristics of the Movement

Modernist writers were influenced by such thinkers as Sigmund Freud and Karl Marx, amongst others, who raised questions about the rationality of the human mind.

Marked by a strong and intentional break with tradition. This break includes a strong reaction against established religious, political, and social views.

A central preoccupation of Modernism is with the inner self and consciousness.

The Modernist cares little for Nature, Being, or the overarching structures of history.

The “unreliable” narrator supplanted the omniscient, trustworthy narrator of preceding centuries, and readers were forced to question even the most basic assumptions about how the novel should operate.

There is no such thing as absolute truth. All things are relative.

Stream of consciousness 

stream of consciousness, narrative technique in nondramatic fiction intended to render the flow of myriad impressions—visual, auditory, physical, associative, and subliminal—that impinge on the consciousness of an individual and form part of his awareness along with the trend of his rational thoughts. The term was first used by the psychologist William James in The Principles of Psychology (1890). As the psychological novel developed in the 20th century, some writers attempted to capture the total flow of their characters’ consciousness, rather than limit themselves to rational thoughts. To represent the full richness, speed, and subtlety of the mind at work, the writer incorporates snatches of incoherent thought, ungrammatical constructions, and free association of ideas, images, and words at the pre-speech level.

The stream-of-consciousness novel commonly uses the narrative techniques of interior monologue. Probably the most famous example is James Joyce’s Ulysses (1922), a complex evocation of the inner states of the characters Leopold and Molly Bloom and Stephen Dedalus. Other notable examples include Leutnant Gustl (1901) by Arthur Schnitzler, an early use of stream of consciousness to recreate the atmosphere of pre-World War I Vienna; William Faulkner’s The Sound and the Fury (1929), which records the fragmentary and impressionistic responses in the minds of three members of the Compson family to events that are immediately being experienced or events that are being remembered; and Virginia Woolf’s The Waves (1931), a complex novel in which six characters recount their lives from childhood to old age.

Avant-garde 

The avant-garde is a person or work that is experimental, radical, or unorthodox with respect to art, culture, or society. It is frequently characterized by aesthetic innovation and initial unacceptability.

Surrealism 

Surrealism, movement in visual art and literature, flourishing in Europe between World Wars I and II. Surrealism grew principally out of the earlier Dada movement, which before World War I produced works of anti-art that deliberately defied reason; but Surrealism’s emphasis was not on negation but on positive expression. The movement represented a reaction against what its members saw as the destruction wrought by the “rationalism” that had guided European culture and politics in the past and that had culminated in the horrors of World War I. According to the major spokesman of the movement, the poet and critic André Breton, who published The Surrealist Manifesto in 1924, Surrealism was a means of reuniting conscious and unconscious realms of experience so completely that the world of dream and fantasy would be joined to the everyday rational world in “an absolute reality, a surreality.” Drawing heavily on theories adapted from Sigmund Freud, Breton saw the unconscious as the wellspring of the imagination. He defined genius in terms of accessibility to this normally untapped realm, which, he believed, could be attained by poets and painters alike.

Expressionism 

Expressionism, artistic style in which the artist seeks to depict not objective reality but rather the subjective emotions and responses that objects and events arouse within a person. The artist accomplishes this aim through distortion, exaggeration, primitivism, and fantasy and through the vivid, jarring, violent, or dynamic application of formal elements. In a broader sense Expressionism is one of the main currents of art in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and its qualities of highly subjective, personal, spontaneous self-expression are typical of a wide range of modern artists and art movements. Expressionism can also be seen as a permanent tendency in Germanic and Nordic art from at least the European Middle Ages, particularly in times of social change or spiritual crisis, and in this sense it forms the converse of the rationalist and classicizing tendencies of Italy and later of France.

More specifically, Expressionism as a distinct style or movement refers to a number of German artists, as well as Austrian, French, and Russian ones, who became active in the years before World War I and remained so throughout much of the interwar period.

Absurdism

Absurdism means the internal conflict between human tendency to find the inherent value and the meaning of life and his inability to find any.

In other words, absurdism refers to humans struggle to find the region in his life and his inability to find it due to humanly limited constraints.

Thus absurdism refers to something which is humanly impossible rather than logically impossible. In this sense, one who tries to find inherent values and meaning in life will ultimately fail because of impossible certain.

The absurdism rose during the period of world wars. These world wars had shaken the whole world. The mass killings of millions of people made the writers of the age believe that the world is meaningless.

Everybody has his own way of finding meanings. If we use the concept of Absurdism in terms of War it can be interpreted that nations indulged in the wars in order to achieve something for themselves through the war means, though the brutality is against humanity.

The two important writers Kierkegaard and Camus have tried to give solutions in their works with The Sickness unto Death and The myth of Sisyphus respectively.  According to Camus, there are 3 solutions to absurdism.

Adopting or creating a meaning Framework like religion the exists consider it as philosophical suicide because by submitting to an idea or being which is considered to be beyond the observed limits once freedom.

Suicide: it is a solution in which a person considers life meaningless boring or painful and that ends his life according to Camus, death is not observed but once attempt to kill himself is.

Acceptance of the Absurd: it is the solution in which a person accepts the absurdity of life he needed submits to any religious or moral constants know as his life and lives at his greatest extent of freedom.

The Rebel Poem Class 7 in English Explanation in Hindi

In other words, absurdism refers to humans struggle to find the region in his life and his inability to find it due to humanly limited constraints.

Thus absurdism refers to something which is humanly impossible rather than logically impossible. In this sense, one who tries to find inherent values and meaning in life will ultimately fail because of impossible certain.

The absurdism rose during the period of world wars. These world wars had shaken the whole world. The mass killings of millions of people made the writers of the age believe that the world is meaningless.

Everybody has his own way of finding meanings. If we use the concept of Absurdism in terms of War it can be interpreted that nations indulged in the wars in order to achieve something for themselves through the war means, though the brutality is against humanity.

The two important writers Kierkegaard and Camus have tried to give solutions in their works with The Sickness unto Death and The myth of Sisyphus respectively.  According to Camus, there are 3 solutions to absurdism

Adopting or creating a meaning Framework like religion the exists consider it as philosophical suicide because by submitting to an idea or being which is considered to be beyond the observed limits once freedom.

Suicide: it is a solution in which a person considers life meaningless boring or painful and that ends his life according to Camus, death is not observed but once attempt to kill himself is.

Acceptance of the Absurd: it is the solution in which a person accepts the absurdity of life he needed submits to any religious or moral constants know as his life and lives at his greatest extent of freedom.

Absurdism is different from existentialism and Nihilism as explained below:

“Nihilism holds that there is no meaning of life and creating a meaning is useless. Existentialism holds that do the world is observed one can create the meaning of his own to it. Absurdism, on the other hand, believes that world is meaningless and one should accept as well as Rebel against it”.

Characteristics 

Absurd dramas are lyrical, like music: they describe an atmosphere and an experience of archetypal human situations.

Life is essentially meaningless, hence sorrowful.

There is no hope because of the inevitable futility of man’s efforts.

Reality cannot be borne unless relieved by illusions and dreams.

The absurd play includes conventional speech, slogans, technical jargon and clichés in order to make people aware of the possibility of moving beyond common speech conventions and communicating more authentically.

Objects hold a more significant position than the language.

Man is fascinated by death which permanently replaces dream

s and illusions.

There is no action or plot. What happens is very little as nothing meaningful can happen.

The final situation is absurd or comic.

Absurd drama is not purposeful and specific as it solves no problem. It is like an abstract painting which does not convey a particular meaning.

It negates rationalism because it feels that rational thought, like language, only deals with the superficial aspects of things.

It considers language a failure to express the essence of human experience, not being able to penetrate beyond its surface.

There is no dramatic conflict in the absurd plays.

Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "Surrealism". Encyclopedia Britannica, 15 Dec. 2021, https://www.britannica.com/art/Surrealism. Accessed 10 May 2022.

Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "stream of consciousness". Encyclopedia Britannica, 28 Feb. 2020, https://www.britannica.com/art/stream-of-consciousness. Accessed 10 May 2022.

Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "Expressionism". Encyclopedia Britannica, 5 Nov. 2020, https://www.britannica.com/art/Expressionism. Accessed 10 May 2022.

“Absurdism in Literature; Meaning & Characteristics • English Summary .” English Summary, 21 Nov. 2017, https://englishsummary.com/absurdism-literature/#:~:text=Absurdism%20means%20the%20internal%20conflict,due%20to%20humanly%20limited%20constraints.

Vakroti, Auchitya, Riti and Alamkara

Vakroti 

Kuntaka was an 11th century poetician who brilliantly anticipated many concepts used in 20th century criticism.

His theory of Vakrokti is a comprehensive one. It means figurativeness and obliquity of expression. It is a manifestation of the basic obliquity of the poet’s creative process.

According to Kuntaka, vakrokti or figurativeness manifests at 6 levels of expression in poetry:

Phonetic

Lexical

Grammatical

Sentential

Contextual

Compositional

There is a surprising similarity between Kuntaka’s vakrokti and the concept of style as ‘deviation from the norm’ seen in modern stylistics. However it is equally important that while stylistics is concerned with phonological, grammatical and lexical aspects of the language, Kuntaka takes into account larger units of discourse also, such as context and composition itself taken as a whole. This enables him to view the entire gamut of the poetic creation from the point of view of artistic efficacy.

Phonetic figurativeness (Varnavinyasa Vakrata)—encompasses alliteration, rhyme, and all other subtle effects of sound in poetry. Kuntaka recognises onomatopoeic effects. Shakespeare’s ‘Fair is foul and foul is fair’.

Lexical figurativeness (padapurvardha Vakrata)—includes stylistic choice in vocabulary, metaphor, power of adjectives and veiled expressions. For example, carefully concealing a Maha Pataka—“Is he despatched”

Grammatical figurativeness ( pratyaya vakrata)—involves the deft use of suffixes, especially those indicating numbers, person, and case forms. It also includes delineation of inanimate objects as animate and personification of objects—instead of saying ‘tense’—‘make my seated heart knock at my ribs’.

Sentential Figurativeness (Vakyavakrata)—it is the permeating presence that enters all other elements. The effect is akin to a painter’s stroke that shines out distinctively from the beauty of the material used. 

Kuntaka’s theory does not stop with the analysis of sentences as is done in stylistic studies, since techniques like contextual and compositional figurativeness analyze larger segments of the discourse than the sentence.

Contextual figurativeness (Prakarana vakrata) comprises all those factors which contribute to the strikingness of the context. The equivocation in the prediction of witches, culminating in the materialization of the Birnamwood coming to Dunsinane, the  emergence of Macduff, ‘untimely ripp’d from his mother’s womb’ to kill Macbeth, the apparition of the witches and the sleepwalking scene are examples of contextual figurativeness.

Compositional figurativeness ( Prabandha vakrata). This includes adaptation of  a story from a well-known source with new twists added to it, with a new emotional significance, deletion of unnecessary episodes, the development of even minor incidents into events of far reaching consequences and striking ness. Kuntaka regards  a  literary composition as an allegory which conveys some profound moral message and this moral content is also regarded as a compositional figurativeness.

Duncan from a young and unsatisfactory monarch into a venerable old man so that his murder seems more gruesome. Conversion of a catalog of crime and bloodshed in Holinshed into a profound study of guilt and self-destruction.

Alamkara 

Alamkara denotes an extraordinary turn given to an ordinary expression; which makes ordinary speech into poetic speech (Sabratha sahitya) ; and , which indicates the entire range of rhetorical ornaments as a means of poetic expression. In other words, Alamkara connotes the underlying principle of embellishment itself as also the means for embellishment.

According to Bhamaha, Dandin and Udbhata the essential element of Kavya was in Alamkara. The Alamkara School did not say explicitly that Alamkara is the soul of Poetry. Yet, they regarded Alamkara as the very important element of Kavya. They said just as the ornaments enhance the charm of a beautiful woman, so do the Alankaras to Kavya: shobha-karan dharman alamkaran prakshate . The Alamkara School, in general, regarded all those elements that contribute towards or that enhance the beauty and brilliance of Kavya as Alamkaras. Accordingly, the merits of Guna, Rasa, and Dhvani as also the various figures of speech were all clubbed under the general principle of Alamkara.

Though Vamana advocates Riti, he also states that Alamkara (Soundarya-alamkara) enhances the beauty of Kavya. Vamana said Kavya is the union of sound and sense which is free from poetic flaws (Dosha) and is adorned with Gunas (excellence) and Alamkaras (ornamentation or figures of speech).

According to Mammata, Alamkara, though a very important aspect of Kavya , is not absolutely essential. He said; Kavya is that which is constructed by word and sentence which are (a) faultless (A-doshau) (b) possessed of excellence (Sugunau) , and, (c) in which rarely a distinct figure of speech  (Alamkriti) may be absent.

 Indian music tradition classifies alankara as rational or irrational, wherein irrational alankara being those that cannot be reduced to a fixed scale degree pattern. The Indian theory of gamaka covers the group of irrational alankara.The concept of alankara applies to both vocal and musical instrument performance.

There are two large classes of alankara: arthalankar (artha, “meaning”), which ornaments the meaning of the word, and shabdalankar (shabda, “word”), which ornaments its sound. The most important of the arthalankar include simile (upama), metaphor (rupaka), hyperbole (atishayokti), and wordplays (shlesha).

Aucitya 

Kshemendra – wrote a critical work Auchitya-alamkara or Auchitya-vichara-charcha (discussions or the critical research on properties in poetry), and a practical handbook for poets Kavi-katnta-abharana (ornamental necklace for poets) – calls Auchitya the appropriateness or that which makes right sense in the given context as the very life-breath of Rasa – Rasa Jivi-bhoot aaya.

He said Auchitya is the very life of Kavya (Kavyasya jivitam) that is endowed with Rasa (Aucityam rasa siddhanta sthiram kavyasya jeevitham).

Abhinavagupta avers that the life principle (jivitatvam) of Kavya could said to be  the harmony that exists among the three : Rasa, Dhvani and Auchitya –  Uchita-sabdena  Rasa-vishaya-auchitya bhavathi darshayan Rasa-Dhvani jivitatvam   suchayati.  Thus, Auchitya is entwined with Rasa and Dhvani. 

He asserts that Auchitya implies , presupposes and stands for ‘suggestion of Rasa’ – Rasa-dhvani – the principles of Rasa and Dhvani. 

The most essential element of Rasa , he said, is Auchitya.  The test of Auchitya is the harmony between the expressed sounds and the suggested Rasa. And , he described  Auchitya as that laudable virtue (Guna) which embalms the poetry with delight  .

According to Kshemendra, all components of Kavya perform their function ideally only when they are applied appropriately and treated properly. “When one thing befits another or matches perfectly, it is said to be appropriate, Auchitya”:

(Aucityam prahuracarya sadrasham kila; Aucitasya ka vo bhava stadaucityam pracaksate).

The concept of Auchitya could , perhaps, be understood as the sense of  proportion  between the whole (Angin) and the part (Anga) and harmony on one side; and, appropriateness and adaptation on the other.

It said; be it Alamkara or Guna, it will be beautiful and relishing if it is appropriate (Uchita) from the point of view of Rasa; and, they would be rejected if they are in- appropriate . And, what is normally considered a Dosha (flaw) might well turn into Guna (virtue) when it is appropriate to the Rasa

But, many are hesitant to accept Auchitya as the Atma of the Kavya. They point out that Auchitya by its very nature is something that attempts to bring refinement into to text; but, it is not an independent factor. And, it does not also form the essence of Kavya. Auchitya is also not a recognized School of Poetics.

27 Types of Auchitya By Kshemendra

Pada (Phrase)

Vakya( sentence)

Prabhandhanartha (the meaning of the whole composition)

Guna(qualities)

Alankara(poetic figure)

Rasa ( State of being)

Kriya(Verb)

Karaka (case ending)

Linga(Gender)

Vachana (Number)

Visheshana (Qualification)

Upsarg (Prefix)

Nipata (Redundancies)

Kala (Time)

Desh (country)

Kula (Family)

Vrata (custom)

Tatva (Truth)

Satva(Inherent self)

Abhipraya (Motive)

Sara Sangraha (essential property)

Pratibha (Innate ability)

Avastha (state)

Vichara(Thought)

Nama(Name)

Aashirwad(Blessings)

Emotions are an integral part of humans. 

This is known as Auchitya. 

Riti 

Vamana called the first section (Adhikarana) of his work as Sarira-adhikaranam – reflections on the body of Kavya. After discussing the components of the Kavya-body, Vamana looks into those aspects that cannot be reduced to physical elements. For Vamana, that formless, indeterminate essence of Kavya is Riti.

Then, Vamana said; the essence of Kavya is Riti (Ritir Atma Ka Vysya – VKal_1,2.6 ); just as every body has Atma, so does every Kavya has its Riti. And, Riti is the very mode or the act of being Kavya. Thus for Vamana, while Riti is the essence of Kavya, the Gunas are the essential elements of the Riti. The explanation offered by Vamana meant that the verbal structure having certain Gunas is the body of Kavya, while its essence (soul) is, Riti.

Riti represents for Vamana the particular structure of sounds (Vishista-pada-rachana Ritihi) combined with poetic excellence (Vishesho Gunatma) . According to Vamana, Riti is the going or the flowing together of the elements of a poem

– Rinati gacchati asyam guna iti riyate ksaraty asyam van madhu-dhareti va ritih (Vamana KSS). 

The language and its structural form lead us to the inner core of poetry. And, when that language becomes style (Riti), it absorbs into itself all the other constituent elements of poetry. It allows them, as also the poetic vision, to shine through it.

Vamana, therefore, accorded Riti a very high position by designating Riti as the Soul of Kavya – Riti is to the Kavya what Atman is to the Sarira (body). Here, it is explained that in his definition of Riti, Pada-rachana   represents the structure or the body while Riti is its inner essence. Through this medium of Visista Pada-rachana   the Gunas become manifest and reveal the presence of Riti, the Atman.

Dhavni 

Theory of Dhvani and Its Evolution

The problem of method in art and the discovery of Dhvani: 

Prachina School:

The type of poetry recognized by early aesthetic thinkers is one that has for its content a natural or human situation idealized by the poet for its own sake.

A situation is external and objective can be described in words (vacya). 

Therefore, the method by which such a content can be communicated to the reader is 

the linguistic expression of it (Vacana). 

The expression directly conveys the idea of a 

situation to the readers. As the expression itself constitutes the method for 

communicating the intended content, specifically the situation, the beauty of a poem in regard to its method consists in the beauty of the expression. Therefore, they set 

themselves to the task of studying the ingredients of beauty in poetic expression.

In regard to the method of poetry, the attention of the Pracina School is confined to 

poetic expression which consists of words and their explicit meaning. Expression 

has two aspects:

The word (sabda) 

Its explicit meaning (vakyartha) With reference to each of these, the three 

fundamental concepts are discussed which are as follows:

1 Guna (excellence): 

Whatever quality in word and meaning lends charm to the expression is regarded by these writers as an excellence (guna).

2. Dosa (defect): 

Whatever mars the beauty of expression, either in word or in meaning, is regarded as a blemish (dosa).There is difference of opinion among these early writers on the number and nature of these gunas and doshas. But then again the presence of guna and the absence of dosa ensure beauty in the expression and therefore make it a source of delight. The presence of guna and the absence of dosa in the word (sabda) make for correction of language and in the meaning (artha) tends to promote lucidity of thought.

3 On alankara Or Embellishment

There are differences of opinion on alankara, or embellishment. Some writers do not 

make a clear distinction between guna and alankara. Alankara is distinguished from 

guna. It is given a role subordinate to guna both in word and meaning. It lends 

additional charm to the expression rendered beautiful by the presence of gunas and 

the absence of dosas.The number of alankaras also, there is no uniformity among writers. In regard to the method of poetry, the attention of Pracina School is confined to poetic expression, consisting of words and their explicit meanings.

 

Ānandvardhan was a well-reputed Kashmirian poet and philosopher and constructed Dhvani.The communication of proper meaning through words requires a proper arrangement of sounds. Language basically can be written or spoken which has words as their foundation. Sanskrit critic has described three types of words:

(Abhidha) - Literal Meaning of the word.

 (Lakshana) - Characteristically Meaning of the word.

 (Vyanjana) - Poetic & Metaphysical Meaning of the word.

The third word Vyanjana reaches the soul and gives the suggested (extraordinary) meaning of the word. It is also called 'dhvani'. Basically, Dhvani is created by Pada (पद) which combines to form Vākya (वाक्य) and from Vākya, Rasābhāva () is generated.

Supremacy of Dhvani

Many authors such as Bharat, Mammatt, Bhāmah, Dandi considered various aspects such as Rasā, Alamkār, Riti, Guna-dosha as the important part of the poem. But Ānandvardhan is one step ahead. He said the above-mentioned aspects were the body of the poetry. In short, they were part of the poetry. Whereas 'Dhvani' is the soul of poetry. Just like the human body is not alive with soul, poetry is also lame without Dhvani.

Conclusion 

Dhvani theory is a theory of meaning and symbolism which leads to the poetry of suggestion being accepted as the highest kind of poetry. Dhvani Theory is, therefore, Ānandvardhan's greatest contribution to the poetic world. Through Dhvani or Vyanjana, the poet creates a world of his expression embellished with various poetic devices. Hence, Dhvani in true sense is beyond the suggestible meaning and suggestible element. Ānandvardhan's Dhvani Theory is highly supported by Abhinavgupta.

Adkoli, Mahesh M. “A Critical Survey of the Poetic Concept Aucitya in Theory and Practice.” Shodhganga@INFLIBNET: A Critical Survey of the Poetic Concept Aucitya in Theory and Practice, Dharwad, 1 Jan. 1970, https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/handle/10603/95340.

International Res Jour Managt Socio Human, Yadav  Munni. “Rasa, Dhwani and Auchitya-Criticism & Theory Yadav Munni Devi.” Academia.edu, 22 Aug. 2018, https://www.academia.edu/37274618/Rasa_Dhwani_and_Auchitya_Criticism_and_Theory_YADAV_MUNNI_DEVI.

Transcendentalists

Transcendentalists 

Transcendentalism, 19th-century movement of writers and philosophers in New England who were loosely bound together by adherence to an idealistic system of thought based on a belief in the essential unity of all creation, the innate goodness of humanity, and the supremacy of insight over logic and experience for the revelation of the deepest truths. German transcendentalism (especially as it was refracted by Samuel Taylor Coleridge and Thomas Carlyle), Platonism and Neoplatonism, the Indian and Chinese scriptures, and the writings of such mystics as Emanuel Swedenborg and Jakob Böhme were sources to which the New England Transcendentalists turned in their search for a liberating philosophy.

Eclectic and cosmopolitan in its sources and part of the Romantic movement, New England Transcendentalism originated in the area around Concord, Massachusetts, and from 1830 to 1855 represented a battle between the younger and older generations and the emergence of a new national culture based on native materials. It attracted such diverse and highly individualistic figures as Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry David Thoreau, Margaret Fuller, Orestes Brownson,  Elizabeth Palmer Peabody, and James Freeman Clarke, as well as George Ripley, Bronson Alcott, the younger W.E. Channing, and W.H. Channing. In 1840 Emerson and Margaret Fuller founded The Dial (1840–44), the prototypal “little magazine” wherein some of the best writings by minor Transcendentalists appeared. The writings of the Transcendentalists and those of contemporaries such as Walt Whitman, Herman Melville, and Nathaniel Hawthorne, for whom they prepared the ground, represent the first flowering of the American artistic genius and introduced the American Renaissance in literature.

Transcendentalists rejected the conventions of 18th-century thought, and what began in a dissatisfaction with Unitarianism developed into a repudiation of the whole established order. They were leaders in experimental schemes for living (Thoreau at Walden Pond, Alcott at Fruitlands, Ripley at Brook Farm); women’s suffrage; better conditions for workers; temperance for all; modifications of dress and diet; the rise of free religion; educational innovation; and other humanitarian causes.

Transcendentalists’ organic philosophy, aesthetics, and democratic aspirations were the pragmatism of William James and John Dewey, the environmental planning of Benton MacKaye and Lewis Mumford, the architecture (and writings) of Louis Sullivan and Frank Lloyd Wright, and the American “modernism” in the arts promoted by Alfred Stieglitz.

Some of the transcendentalist beliefs are:

Humans are inherently good.

Society and its institutions such as organized religion and politics are corrupting. 

Instead of being part of them, humans should strive to be independent and self-reliant.

Spirituality should come from the self, not organized religion.

Insight and experience are more important than logic.

Nature is beautiful, should be deeply appreciated, and shouldn’t be altered by humans.

Major Transcendentalist Values

The transcendentalist movement encompassed many beliefs, but these all fit into their three main values of individualism, idealism, and the divinity of nature.

Individualism

Perhaps the most important transcendentalist value was the importance of the individual. They saw the individual as pure, and they believed that society and its institutions corrupted this purity. Transcendentalists highly valued the concept of thinking for oneself and believed people were best when they were independent and could think for themselves. Only then could individuals come together and form ideal communities.

Idealism

The focus on idealism comes from Romanticism, a slightly earlier movement. Instead of valuing logic and learned knowledge as many educated people at the time did, transcendentalists placed great importance on imagination, intuition and creativity. They saw the values of the Age of Reason as controlling and confining, and they wanted to bring back a more “ideal” and enjoyable way of living.

Divinity of Nature

Transcendentalists didn’t believe in organized religion, but they were very spiritual. Instead of believing in the divinity of religious figures, they saw nature as sacred and divine. They believed it was crucial for humans to have a close relationship with nature, the same way religious leaders preach about the importance of having a close relationship with God. Transcendentalists saw nature as perfect as it was; humans shouldn’t try to change or improve it.

Key Figures in the Transcendentalist Movement

Ralph Waldo Emerson

Emerson is the key figure in transcendentalism. He brought together many of the original transcendentalists, and his writings form the foundation of many of the movement’s beliefs. The day before he published his essay “Nature” he invited a group of his friends to join the “Transcendental Club” a meeting of like-minded individuals to discuss their beliefs. He continued to host club meetings, write essays, and give speeches to promote transcendentalism. Some of his most important transcendentalist essays include “The Over-Soul,” “Self-Reliance,” “The American Scholar” and “Divinity School Address.”

Henry David Thoreau

The second-most important transcendentalist, Thoreau was a friend of Emerson’s who is best known for his book Walden. Walden is focused on the benefits of individualism, simple living and close contact with and observation of nature. Thoreau also frequently opposed the government and its actions, most notably in his essay “Civil Disobedience.”

Margaret Fuller

Margaret Fuller was perhaps the leading female transcendentalist. A well-known journalist and ardent supporter of women’s rights, she helped cofound The Dial, the key transcendentalist journal, with Emerson, which helped cement her place in the movement and spread the ideas of transcendentalism to a wider audience. An essay she wrote for the journal was later published as the book Woman in the Nineteenth Century, one of the earliest feminist works in the United States. She believed in  the importance of the individual, but often felt that other transcendentalists, namely Emerson, focused too much on individualism at the expense of social reform.

Romanticism vs Transcendentalism

The main difference between Romanticism and Transcendentalism is that Romanticism has not much emphasized God but when mentioned God is always known to be the external force. Whereas, Transcendentalism emphasized more on God and considers God as an internal light within the human body.

Romanticism was highly based on feelings, emotions, and introduced different emotions like anxiety, depression, etc. And hence Romanticism highlights patriotism, allegiance, and loyalties. Whereas, Transcendentalism highlights the power of nature, individualism, and divinity.

Romanticism emphasizes emotion and feelings over personal and intellectual growth whereas Transcendentalism emphasizes inspirations beyond human perspective, normal traditions, and reasoning.

Romanticism doesn't heavily emphasize God whereas Transcendentalism strongly emphasizes God, divinity, and believes in miracles.

Romanticism indicates positivity whereas Transcendentalism indicates both good and evil as a part of personal growth.

Romanticism was against outward appearances and objective reasoning and Transcendentalism was against religious traditions and dogmas appearances and objective reasoning and Transcendentalism was against religious traditions and dogmas.

Conclusion

Firstly, if we see both the terms: Romanticism and Transcendentalism it seems like they are the same. And they both were started in the same era of the late 18th century and worked roughly till mid-end of the 18th century itself.

Romanticism and Transcendentalism both are literary movements that took place in the 18th century.   In the majority of aspects, both Romanticism and Transcendentalism’s philosophies were similar. 

Both of them- Romanticism and Transcendentalism causes were quite similar. Both movements- Romanticism movements and Transcendentalism movements were the result of strict traditions, law, and religious rules of that time which only serve political and religious benefits and not the development of a human being and its inner self.

Both of them- Romanticism and Transcendentalism encouraged individuals to go on the journey of self-growth and finding inner light in the sense of god’s divinity and accept the fact that miracles do happen. Both of them motivated the journey of emotions like love, depression, anxiety, etc, and let that feel the human body.

Romanticism emphasized the god is internal light whereas transcendental emphasized that god’s the external force. Both of them taught to believe there is god, and God is the universe, and whatever you seek from the universe, you shall receive.

Romanticism and Transcendentalism are also taught to find the purpose of one’s living, to meditate and find that inner light and then conduct a selection out of two choices which are accepted good in life or evil in life.

 Though both of the ways were different to make people understand what is god, its nature, beliefs, universe, and emotions, the one thing which was for sure was the development of personal growth mentally and emotionally.

“Margaret Fuller.” Poetry Foundation, Poetry Foundation, https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poets/margaret-fuller.

Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopedia. "Transcendentalism". Encyclopedia Britannica, 22 Oct. 2021, https://www.britannica.com/event/Transcendentalism-American-movement. Accessed 9 May 2022.

Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopedia. "Henry David Thoreau". Encyclopedia Britannica, 2 May. 2022, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Henry-David-Thoreau. Accessed 9 May 2022.

Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "Ralph Waldo Emerson". Encyclopedia Britannica, 23 Apr. 2022, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ralph-Waldo-Emerson. Accessed 9 May 2022.

George Orwell Nineteen Eighty-four

George Orwell 

George Orwell, pseudonym of Eric Arthur Blair, (born June 25, 1903, Motihari, Bengal, India—died January 21, 1950, London, England), English novelist, essayist, and critic famous for his novels Animal Farm (1945) and Nineteen Eighty-four (1949), the latter a profound anti-utopian novel that examines the dangers of totalitarian rule.

Born Eric Arthur Blair, Orwell never entirely abandoned his original name, but his first book, Down and Out in Paris and London, appeared in 1933 as the work of George Orwell (the surname he derived from the beautiful River Orwell in East Anglia). In time his nom de plume became so closely attached to him that few people but relatives knew his real name was Blair. The change in name corresponded to a profound shift in Orwell’s lifestyle, in which he changed from a pillar of the British imperial establishment into a literary and political rebel.

About the Novel Nineteen Eighty-Four 

Nineteen Eighty-four, also published as 1984, novel by English author George Orwell published in 1949 as a warning against totalitarianism. The chilling dystopia made a deep impression on readers, and his ideas entered mainstream culture in a way achieved by very few books. The book’s title and many of its concepts, such as Big Brother and the Thought Police, are instantly recognized and understood, often as bywords for modern social and political abuses.

Summary

The book is set in 1984 in Oceania, one of three perpetually warring totalitarian states (the other two are Eurasia and Eastasia). Oceania is governed by the all-controlling Party, which has brainwashed the population into unthinking obedience to its leader, Big Brother. The Party has created a propagandistic language known as Newspeak, which is designed to limit free thought and promote the Party’s doctrines. Its words include doublethink (belief in contradictory ideas simultaneously), which is reflected in the Party’s slogans: “War is peace,” “Freedom is slavery,” and “Ignorance is strength.” The Party maintains control through the Thought Police and continual surveillance.

The book’s hero, Winston Smith, is a minor party functionary living in a London that is still shattered by a nuclear war that took place not long after World War II. He belongs to the Outer Party, and his job is to rewrite history in the Ministry of Truth, bringing it in line with current political thinking. However, Winston’s longing for truth and decency leads him to secretly rebel against the government. He embarks on a forbidden affair with Julia, a like-minded woman, and they rent a room in a neighborhood populated by Proles (short for proletariats). Winston also becomes increasingly interested in the Brotherhood, a group of dissenters. Unbeknownst to Winston and Julia, however, they are being watched closely (ubiquitous posters throughout the city warn residents that “Big Brother is watching you.”

When Winston is approached by O’Brien—an official of the Inner Party who appears to be a secret member of the Brotherhood—the trap is set. O’Brien is actually a spy for the Party, on the lookout for “thought-criminals,” and Winston and Julia are eventually caught and sent to the Ministry of Love for a violent reeducation. The ensuing imprisonment, torture, and reeducation of Winston are intended not merely to break him physically or make him submit but to root out his independence and destroy his dignity and humanity. In Room 101, where prisoners are forced into submission by exposure to their worst nightmares, Winston panics as a cage of rats is attached to his head. He yells out for his tormentors to “Do it to Julia!” and states that he does not care what happens to her. With this betrayal, Winston is released. He later encounters Julia, and neither is interested in the other. Instead Winston loves Big Brother.

Themes

Totalitarianism 

The most important theme in 1984 is totalitarianism. The Party has almost achieved the idea of a totalitarian state completely. Totalitarianism is a form of government that theoretically permits no 

individual freedom and that seeks to subordinate all aspects of the individual's life to the authority of the government.Or simply said: the belief that a government should have total power over its citizens.The society the protagonist (Winston Smith) lives in, is a totalitarian state. They achieved that in approximately 60 years. The state was formed mainly by using all sorts of propaganda and by making the entire life of a Party member (as well Inner Party as Outer Party) revolve around the Party. 

For example, everywhere in the streets there are monstrous posters with the Party slogans and the face of Big Brother. Especially the one with the phrase Big Brother is watching you. 

The regime keeps on making clear to its people that they are monitored, that the Party knows everything about what the people do and think. The Party keeps the people small by creating a kind of fear. That fear leads to the obedience of the inhabitants of London.

Not only the Party or their neighbors could betray a Party member, even their own children are used. From the moment they can walk and talk, they join the Youth Leagues, and are trained to become Spies.

Identity/Identification and Loyalty

Identity is a weird thing in this book. On one hand, the protagonist is an individual human 

being who controls his mind, but throughout the book he and his lover completely lose their identity. They do live on, but as shells of the people they once were.‘’By the time we had finished with them they were only the shells of men. There was nothing left in them except sorrow for what they had done, and love of Big Brother.’’

 

Technology

Technology doesn’t seem to play a major part in 1984, but it indispensable to control the 

citizens. The telescreens (a television screen that can be used as a television screen and a 

security camera at the same time) which are almost everywhere (in every room, on the 

streets, in public areas, etc.) are quite advanced. They are used to record conversations and spread information like the news and play songs. They don’t have night vision, but they do continue recording sounds and movements when it is dark. They are monitored by the Thought Police. The telescreens can’t be turned off completely for Outer-Party members, they can dim the screen. The Inner-Party members however, can. When Winston and Julia visit O’Brien, he is able to turn off his telescreen for half an hour, longer would be too suspicious.

Tiny microphones are hidden in the entire city and beyond. These are also used to monitor 

people and to record their conversations. 

There are scientists, but they are not free to invent whatever they want. Their research field is limited to inventing new ways to further restrict human identity and military capacity.

Poverty vs. Wealth

In 1984, there were three sorts of people: Inner-Party members, Outer-Party members and the Proles. Less than 2 percent of the population is an Inner-Party member. These people are the most wealthy, have the most rights and best jobs. Being an Inner-Party member has its advantages. They are monitored less, they can turn off their telescreen completely, they get food of a higher quality than the others and even foods 

or drinks that are not available for the others. Like wine, real coffee, real tea and sugar. 

Children of Inner-Party members do not automatically become Inner-Party members.A 

a prospective Inner-Party member is selected when he/she is young through several tests. 

Racial origin and family heritage are not important. The main thing is loyalty. Side note, the Inner-Party members are more likely to rebel than Outer-Party members because they are monitored less than Outer-Party members. Outer-Party members make up approximately 13% of the population. They are constantly monitored. They are the middle class of Oceania and do most of the work in the ministries and the Party government. They all wear blue overalls. The products they get are from a lower quality than the products the Inner-Party gets.

The Proles (working class) make up 85% of the population. They are the working class of 

Oceania and they are not really monitored. There are Thought Police members among them, to spread (false) rumors and to keep them down. Just like the protagonist Winston has said, If there is hope, it lies in the Proles. But, as long as the proles are under educated and don't realize they live under bad circumstances, they probably won’t try to overthrow the Party or something like that. 

The function of the proles is to work and breed. The Party treats them sort of like animals. As the Party slogan put it: 'Proles and animals are free.

Because they aren’t monitored that much and sort of live their own lives, they are free. If they would be interested in religion, it would be permitted. They don’t have to wear uniforms, they are allowed to use cosmetics. Even divorce and prostitution is permitted. 

Probably the biggest difference between the Proles and the Party-members is that the Proles are still humans. They have emotions and are able to express them. And instead of 

Newspeak, the Proles still speak Oldspeak. And as long as they don’t use words that are 

forbidden in Newspeak, they will continue to use the old language.

Lowne, Cathy. "Nineteen Eighty-four". Encyclopedia Britannica, 12 May. 2020, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Nineteen-Eighty-four. Accessed 9 May 2022.

Woodcock, George. "George Orwell". Encyclopedia Britannica, 17 Jan. 2022, https://www.britannica.com/biography/George-Orwell. Accessed 9 May 2022.

Difference between Movie and Book The Great Gatsby

Francis Scott Fitzgerald 

F. Scott Fitzgerald, in full Francis Scott Key Fitzgerald, (born September 24, 1896, St. Paul, Minnesota, U.S.—died December 21, 1940, Hollywood, California), American short-story writer and novelist famous for his depictions of the Jazz Age (the 1920s), his most brilliant novel being The Great Gatsby (1925). His private life, with his wife, Zelda, in both America and France, became almost as celebrated as his novels.

Fitzgerald was the only son of an unsuccessful, aristocratic father and an energetic, provincial mother. Half the time he thought of himself as the heir of his father’s tradition, which included the author of “The Star-Spangled Banner,” Francis Scott Key, after whom he was named, and half the time as “straight 1850 potato-famine Irish.” As a result he had typically ambivalent American feelings about American life, which seemed to him at once vulgar and dazzlingly promising.

About novel The Great Gatsby 

The Great Gatsby, third novel by F. Scott Fitzgerald, published in 1925 by Charles Scribner’s Sons. Set in Jazz Age New York, the novel tells the tragic story of Jay Gatsby, a self-made millionaire, and his pursuit of Daisy Buchanan, a wealthy young woman whom he loved in his youth. Unsuccessful upon publication, the book is now considered a classic of American fiction and has often been called the Great American Novel.

The book is narrated by Nick Carraway, a Yale University graduate from the Midwest who moves to New York after World War I to pursue a career in bonds. He recounts the events of the summer he spent in the East two years later, reconstructing his story through a series of flashbacks not always told in chronological order.

Characters  list

Jay Gatsby 

Jay Gatsby is the titular fictional character of F. Scott Fitzgerald's 1925 novel The Great Gatsby. Fitzgerald based many details about the fictional character on Max Gerlach, a mysterious neighbor and World War I veteran whom the author met while living on Long Island near New York City during the raucous Jazz Age.

Nick Carraway 

Nick Carraway is a fictional character and narrator in F. Scott Fitzgerald's 1925 novel The Great Gatsby.

Daisy Buchanan

Daisy Fay Buchanan is a fictional character in F. Scott Fitzgerald's novel The Great Gatsby. In the novel, Daisy is depicted as a married woman with a daughter. Despite this, she is famous for being "the Golden Girl", due to her elegance and aristocratic background.

Tom Buchanan

Thomas "Tom" Buchanan is Daisy's immensely wealthy husband, once a member of Nick Carraway's social club. Tom lives in the "old money" neighborhood of East Egg in New York.

Myrtle Wilson

Myrtle Wilson is an ambitious social climber, wife of George Wilson and the mistress of Tom Buchanan. Wilson owns a run-down garage in the Valley of Ashes. Myrtle herself possessed a fierce vitality. Unfortunately for her, she chose Tom, who treated her as a mere object of his desire.

Jordan Baker

Jordan Baker is a main character of F. Scott Fitzgerald's 1925 novel The Great Gatsby. She is an amateur golfer with a slightly shady reputation and a penchant for untruthfulness. She is a close friend of Daisy Buchanan, and the romantic interest of the latter's cousin, Nick Carraway.

George Wilson

George Wilson is a gas station and garage owner living in the 'valley of ashes' between Eggs and New York City. Wilson's wife, Myrtle, is engaged in an affair with Tom Buchanan. Wilson is a man defeated by his circumstances. He's poor and beaten down.

Parameters of Comparison	The Great Gatsby Book	The Great Gatsby Movie
The framework	The author depicts the jazz age, the trend in the 1920s.	The movie portrays it as a dress-up party and modern rap.
Jordan Baker	She is in a romantic relationship with Nick until late summer.	The movie portrays her as a mere character without any obvious significance.
Daisy Buchanan	She is a carefree rich woman (narrow-minded).	The intensity of the character is lacking.
Tom Buchanan	His character has few negative traits.	He is portrayed as an absolute villain.
Nick Carraway	He is non – alcoholic, and got drunk twice.	He is shown as an alcoholic.

Book and Movie 

The Great Gatsby book was written by F.Scott Fitzgerald in 1925. It was his third novel. The novel is one of his notable works. The story unfolds the journey of a young boy, Jay Gatsby, and his young love Daisy Fay Buchanan.J. Gatsby believes in the mystery of the universe.

The screenplay was exhibited by Baz Luhrmann and Craig Pearce. On 17 May 2013, the movie was released. The movie starts with the monologue of the narrator. He rewinds his memories and shares them with his doctor. He is in denial after departing from his soul friend, Gatsby.

The Great Gatsby Book

The Great Gatsby Book was written by F. Scott Fitzgerald in the 1920s. It was published by  Charles Scribner’s Sons. It is romantic fiction. Scott plotted a love story in the framework of American society. The poor and the privileged group of people and a bridge connecting them.

Gatsby, a young boy born in a poor family, refers to himself as ‘son of god’. He believed in the manifestation of the universe. He fell in love with a rich girl. The dream he was chasing fell apart when he faced his reality. He parted from his love and returned after a prolonged period. He earned enough money to please Daisy. Daisy was married to Tom, a rich and respectable polo player. Later they faced each other with the help of her cousin, Nick. Nick is the narrator of the story. He unfolds each event with his perspective and declares the unique nature of each of the characters. 

The Great Gatsby Movie

The great gatsby movie was crafted by  Baz Luhrmann and Craig Pearce. The movie is inspired by the book (The Great Gatsby). Though the storyline remains constant, few variations are noticed.

Leonardo DiCaprio brilliantly executed Gatsby. Luhrmann crafted his character with intensity and values. Luhrmann’s Gatsby was portrayed as omniscient. Later he became vulnerable and denied accepting the reality. He was chasing a mirage, a fantasy world that he dreamt in his imagination. Nick, played by Tobey Maguire, signifies the balance between the upper class and the lower class.

 East Egg and West Egg  New York city and the deserted land in between them are crafted with the director’s imagination. Carey Mulligan who played the role of Daisy Fay Buchanan lacks intensity to justify the character as depicted in the novel.

Moreover, gave faces to the characters of The Great Gatsby. He used extreme emotions to defy them, incorporated special effects and a surreal environment. He composed the era of the 1920s with the modern era as impacted through the songs and the parties in the movie. The green light was widely used and justifies in the appropriate sense. Each scene unfolds a story to the viewer with proper clarification and clarity.

Main Differences Between The Great Gatsby Book and Movie

The framework of the book is different from that of the movie. The book showcases an era while the movie seems like a fancy party.

Jordan Baker, the golf player has a dishonest face in the novel, the movie sheds out the necessary details of her character.

Daisy Fay Buchanan, the wife of Tom Buchanan has an intensity in her presence, the movie portrays her as weak and the actor fails to justify the role .

Tom Buchanan has unlikable roles in the book but the movie depicts him as a villain.

Nick Carraway is portrayed as a self-conscious person in the novel. The movie exaggerates the darker phase in his life.

Conclusion 

Great Gatsby is an American classic. Throughout the story, Gatsby remains mysterious, his companion Nick finds him amusing. It is the end when Gatsby discloses his past and honest self. He was guarded with his calmness and elegance until the end when he became vulnerable. Nick describes him as one of a kind. He was daring and optimistic, he believed he was capable of achieving the fantasy world he desired. Daisy was the queen of his fantasy world. Society binds us through restrictions and regulations. We fail to accept the truth at times and our existence faces challenges. This book highlighted the bridge between love and reality.

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Mizener, Arthur. "F. Scott Fitzgerald". Encyclopedia Britannica, 17 Dec. 2021, https://www.britannica.com/biography/F-Scott-Fitzgerald. Accessed 9 May 2022.