Buchi Emecheta, in full Florence Onyebuchi Emecheta.Igbo writer whose novels deal largely with the difficult and unequal role of women in both immigrant and African societies and explore the tension between tradition and modernity.
Emecheta married at age 16, and she emigrated with her husband from Nigeria to London in 1962. She began writing stories based on her life, including the problems she initially encountered in England. These works were first published in New Statesman magazine and were later collected in the novel In the Ditch (1972). That work was followed by Second-Class Citizen (1974), and both were later included in the single volume Adah’s Story (1983).Those books introduce Emecheta’s three major themes: the quests for equal treatment, self-confidence, and dignity as a woman. Somewhat different in style is Emecheta’s novel Gwendolen (1989; also published as The Family), which addresses the issues of immigrant life in Great Britain, as do Kehinde (1994) and The New Tribe (2000).
Most of Emecheta’s other novels—including The Bride Price (1976), The Slave Girl (1977), The Joys of Motherhood (1979), Destination Biafra (1982), and Double Yoke (1982)—are realistic works of fiction set in Nigeria. Perhaps her strongest work, The Rape of Shavi (1983), is also the most difficult to categorize. Set in an imaginary idyllic African kingdom, it explores the dislocations that occur when a plane carrying Europeans seeking to escape an nuclear disaster crashe.
Emecheta wrote an autobiography, Head Above Water (1986), and several works of children’s and juvenile fiction. She was made an Officer of the British Empire (OBE) in 2005.
Buchi Emecheta used to say, “I work toward the liberation of women but I’m not a feminist I’m just a woman.”
About Novel
The Joys of Motherhood is a novel written by Buchi Emecheta. It was first published in London, UK, by Allison & Busby in 1979 and was first published in Heinemann's African Writers Series in 1980 and reprinted 1982, 2004, 2008.
The book opens as Nnu Ego runs away from her home in Lagos, Nigeria, where her first baby has just died she has decided to commit suiside.The story flashes back to the story of how Nnu Ego was conceived. Her father, Agbadi, though he has many wives, is in love with a proud and haughty young woman named Ona. Ona refuses to marry him because she is obligated to produce a son for her father's family line, and not a husband's. But when Agbadi is almost killed in a hunting accident, Ona nurses him back to health and becomes pregnant with his child. She agrees that if it's a daughter, the child will belong to Agbadi.
Emecheta also attacks Ibos who take use of masculine power to oppress women, wives, and daughters. Though women can bear children and raise them, the "Joys of Motherhood" can also be painful and anxiety-inducing. One of Emecheta's most important and well-known works, The Joys of Motherhood, criticises colonialism, tradition, and women's roles, and how they effect one woman, Nnu Ego, and her family.
Q-1) "The most celebrated female character in African creative writing is the African mother." by Marie A. Umeh according to this, is the character of Nnu Ego celebrating motherhood or not? Explain.
The title of the book, which is taken from Flora Nwapa's novel, Efuru, is then significant and bitterly ironic. Dazzled by ambitious sons educated outside of traditional Igbo values, Nnu Ego breaks down and her old secure world gives way to a new one. Fully conscious of the irony in her life, she says,
"A woman with many children could face a lonely old age and maybe a miserable death all alone, just like a barren woman"
Emecheta constructs a totally different set of economic, socio-political and cultural an essential which diverge from the existing literary models.
The character of Nnu Ego celebrating motherhood. The novel The Joy of Motherhood is the story of female protagonist Nnu Ego, who enjoys her life being mother of many children in order to have a comfortable old age. She is ready to sacrifice herself in order to feed and give clothes to children, Emecheta tries to offer the meaning of motherhood through her character Nnu Ego.
Without motherhood, Nnu Ego feels empty and struggled very hard to be a mother.Emecheta wants to transmit the point that bearing more than five or six children do not mean that a mother is going to be prosperous in her old age. She examines the institution of motherliness, unpleasant experiences mixed up in motherliness, and its shock on the minds of the Nigerian women. According to Katherine Frank, "The complete futility of motherhood that we find in The Joys of Motherhood is the most heretical and radical aspect of Emecheta's vision of the African Women".
Nnu Ego had to experience patriarchal slavery throughout her life and died in solitude. All mothers, Ona,Akadu and Nnu Ego, have been victimized in the patriarchal,and traditionally strong Ibo society. But Emecheta’s Nnu Ego challenges the conservative conception ,producing numerous children will give a woman much joyful.
Nnu Ego is not a radical ,she dutifully accepts and fulfills her role as a woman in Ibo society. Her initial quest is for justification and validation. When she cannot conceive with her first husband, Amatokwu, the marriage is dissolved and she is filled with apprehension and shame. When her second marriage, to Nnaife, produces a highly prized son, she realizes the happiness denied her, only to have her joy shattered when Ngozi dies in infancy. The death of the child becomes, by extension, the death of Nnu Ego. She sees no reason to live if she cannot succeed in the single role of bearing and rearing children. Slowly, she comes to new realizations about what is truly important to her, and these epiphanies force her to examine her role and function as a woman in Ibo society.
Nnu Ego's husband Nnaife blames her for their children's defection from traditional values, failing to understand his own role. Much to Nnu Ego's frustration, Nnaife does not acknowledge that his own drinking, lack of financial support, and selfishness contributed to the children's selfishness. Nnu Ego suffers most of all, working day and night at her thankless task of helping her children have all the best advantages and succeed in life.
Conclusion
The actual condition of women is portrayed through the character of Nnu Ego also makes clear that the joys of motherhood include not only happiness but also pain and suffering.
Q-1)What is Plagiarism and what are its consequences?
Definition of Plagiarism
Plagiarism is derived from the Latin word plagiarius ("kidnapper"), to plagiarize means "to commit literary theft" and to "present as new and original an ides or product derived from an existing source".
Consequences of Plagiarism
Research has the power to affect opinions and actions, responsible writers compose their work with great care. They specify when they refer to an- other author's ideas, facts, and words, whether they want to agree with, object to, or analyze the source. This kind of documentation not only recognizes the work writers do; it also tends to discourage the circulation of error.
Q-1 What happens if journalists do plagiarism?
Q-2 What happens if writers do plagiarism?
Q-3 What happens if student do plagiarism?
When journalists, are exposed as plagiarists, they are likely to lose their jobs, and they are certain to suffer public embarrassment and loss of prestige. Almost always, the course of a writer's career is permanently affected by a single act of plagiarism. The serious consequences of plagiarism reflect the value the public places on trustworthy information.
Students exposed as plagiarists may suffer severe penalties, ranging from failure in the assignment or in the course to expulsion from school. This is because student plagiarism does considerable harm. For one thing, it damages teachers' relationships with students, turning teachers into detectives instead of mentors and fostering suspicion instead of trust. By undermining institutional standards for assigning grades and awarding degrees, student plagiarism also becomes a matter of significance to the public. When graduates' skills and knowledge fail to match their grades, an institution's reputation is damaged. For example, no one would choose to be treated by a physician who obtained a medical degree by fraud. Finally, students who plagiarize harm themselves. They lose an important opportunity to learn how to write a research paper Knowing how to collect and analyze information and reshape it in essay form is essential to academic success." This knowledge is also required in a wide range of careers in law, journalism, engineering, public policy, teaching, business, government, and not for profit organizations.
Mark Rose notes the tie between our writing and our sense of self-a tie that, he believes, influenced the idea that a piece of writing could belong to the person who wrote it! Rose says that our sense of ownership of the words we write "is deeply) rooted in our conception of ourselves as individuals with at least a/ modest grade of singularity, some degree of personality. It is essential for all student writers to understand how to avoid committing plagiarism.
Q-2)Short note on:-
a.) Forms of Plagiarism
b.) When Documentation is not needed
c.) Issues related to Plagiarism
a)Forms of Plagiarism
The most blatant firm of plagiarism is to obtain and submit as your own a paper written by someone else Other, less conspicuous forms of plagiarism include the failure to give appropriate acknowledgment when repeating or paraphrasing another's wording, when taking a particularly apt phrase, and when paraphrasing another's argument or presenting another's line of thinking.
1)Repeating or Paraphrasing Wording
Suppose, for example, that we want to use the material in the following passage, which appears on page 625 of an essay by Wendy Martin in the book Columbia Literary History of the United States.
Original Source
Same of Dickinson's most powerful poems express her firmly held conviction that life cannot be fully comprehended without an under standing of death.
If you write the following sentence without documentation, you have plagiarized because you borrowed another's wording without acknowledgment, even though you changed its form:
Plagiarism
Emily Dickinson firmly believed that we cannot fully comprehend life unless we also understand death.
But you may present the material if you cite your source:
As Wendy Martin has suggested, Emily Dickinson firmly believed that we cannot fully comprehend life unless we also understand death (625).
The source is indicated, in accordance with MLA style, by the name of the author ("Wendy Martin") and by a page reference in parenthesis.to the corresponding entry in the works-cited list, which appears at the end of the paper.
Martin, Wendy. "Emily Dickinson." Columbia Literary History of the United States. Emory Elliott, gen. ed. New York: Columbia UP, 1988, 609-26. Print
2)Taking a Particularly Apt Phrase
Original Source
Everyone uses the word language and everybody these days talks about culture.... "Languaculture" is a reminder, I hope, of the necessary connection between its two parts.... (Michael Agar, Language Shock: Understanding the Culture of Conversation [New York: Morrow, 1994; print: 60])
If you write the following sentence without documentation, you have committed plagiarism because you borrowed without acknowledgment a term ("languaculture") invented by another writer:
Plagiarism
At the intersection of language and culture lies a concept that we might call "Languaculture."
But you may present the material if you cite your source: At the intersection of language and culture lies a concept that Michael Agar has called "languaculture" .
In this revision, the author's name refers the reader to the full description of the work in the works-cited list at the end of the paper, and the parenthetical documentation identifies the location of the borrowed material in the work.
Agar, Michael. Language Shock Understanding the Culture of Conversation. New York: Morrow, 1994. Print.
3)Paraphrasing an Argument or Presenting a Line of Thinking
Original Source
Humanity faces a quantum leap forward. It faces the deepest social upheaval and creative restructuring of all time. Without clearly recognizing it, we are engaged in building a remarkable civilization from the ground up. This is the meaning of the Third Wave.
Until now the human race has undergone two great waves of change, each one largely obliterating earlier cultures or civilizations and replacing them with the ways of life inconceivable to those who came before. The First Wave of change-the agricultural revolution- took thousands of years to play itself out. The Second Wave-the rise of industrial civilization-took a mere hundred years. Today history is even more accelerative, and it is likely that the Third Wave will sweep across history and complete itself in a few decades. (Alvin Toffler. The Third Wave [1980, New York: Bantam, 1981; print: 10])
If you write the following sentence without documentation, you have committed plagiarism because you borrowed another writer's line of thinking without acknowledgment.
Plagiarism
There have been two revolutionary periods of change in history: the agricultural revolution and the industrial revolution. The agricultural revolution determined the course of history for thousands of years; the industrial civilization lasted about a century. We are now on the threshold of a new period of revolutionary change, but this one may last for only a few decades.
But you may present the material if you cite your source:
According to Alvin Toffler, there have been two revolutionary periods of change in history: the agricultural revolution and the industrial revolution. The agricultural revolution determined the course of history for thousands of years; the industrial civilization lasted about a century. We are now on the threshold of a new period of revolutionary change, but this one may last for only a few decades .
In this revision, the author's name refers the reader to the full description of the work in the works-cited list at the end of the paper, and the parenthetical documentation identifies the location of the borrowed material in the work.
Toffler, Alvin, The Third Wave, 1980. New York: Bantam, 1981. Print.
b)When Documentation is not needed
In addition to documenting direct quotations and paraphrases, you should consider the status of the information and ideas you glean from sources in relation to your audience and to the scholarly consensus on your topic. In general, information and ideas you deem broadly known by your readers and widely accepted by scholar such as the basic biography of an author or the dates of a historical event, can be used without documentation. But where readers are likely to seek more guidance or where the facts are in significant dispute among scholars, documentation is needed; you could attribute a disputed fact to the source with which you agree or could document the entire controversy. While direct quotations and paraphrases are always documented, scholars seldom document proverbs, sayings. and clichés If we have any doubt about whether we are committing plagiarism, cite your source or sources.
c) Related Issues
1) Reusing a Research Paper
We must complete a research project to earn a grade in a course, handing in a paper you already earned credit for in another course is deceitful. Moreover, we lose the opportunity to improve your knowledge and skills. If we want to rework a paper that you prepared for another course, ask your current instructor for permission to do so. If we wish to draw on or reuse portions of your previous writing in a new paper, ask your instructor for guidance.
2)Collaborative Work
An example of collaborative work is a group project you carry out with other students. Join: participation in research and writing is common and, in fact, encouraged in many courses and in many professions It does not constitute plagiarism provided that credit is given for all contributions. One way to give credit, if roles were clearly demarcated or were unequal, is to state exactly who did what. Another way. especially if roles and contributions were merged and shared, is to acknowledge all concerned equally. Ask your instructor for advice if you are not certain how to acknowledge collaboration.
3)Research on Human Subjects
Many academic institutions have policies governing research on hu- man subjects. Examples of research involving human subjects include clinical trials of a drug or personal interviews for a psychological study. Institutions usually require that researchers obtain the informed con- sent of human subjects for such projects. Although research for a paper in high school or college rarely involves human subjects, ask your instructor about your institution's policy if yours does.
4)Copyright Infringement
Whereas summaries, paraphrases, and brief quotations in research papers are normally permissible with appropriate acknowledgment, reproducing and distributing an entire copyrighted work or significant portions of it without obtaining permission to do so from the copyright holder is an infringement of copyright law and a legal offense, even if the violator acknowledges the source. This is true for works in all media.
Article - 9 Shifting Centres and Emerging Margins: Translation and the Shaping of Modernist Poetic Discourse in Indian Poetry by E.V. Ramkrishnan
Introduction
This chapter examines the role played by translation in shaping a modernist poetic sensibility in some of the major literary traditions of India in the 20th century, between 1950 and 1970.
The chapter will study examples from Bengali, Malayalam and Marathi, to understand how such translation of modern Western poets were used to breach the hegemony of prevailing literary sensibilities and poetics modes.Buddhadeb Bose, Agyeya, Gopalakrishna Adiga, Dilip Chitre and Ayyappa Paniker were Indian poets and translators. Translation from Africa and Latin America poetry played a significant role in the phase of modernism. Neruda and Parra were widely translated into Indian languages during this phase. In this context, translation enacted a critical act of evaluation, a creative act of intervention, and performative act of legitimation, in evolving a new poetic style during the modernist phase of Indian poetry.
The term "translation suggest a range of cultural practices, from critical commentary to creation of intersexual text.Andre Lefevere's concept of translation as reflections/ rewriting, the chapter argues that rewritings and reflections found in the 'less obvious form of criticism...,commentary, historiography, teaching, the collection of works in anthologies, the production of playshare also instance of translation.An essay on T.S. Eliot in Bengali by Sudhindranath Dutt, or scathing critique in Malayalam on the poetic practices of Vallathol Narayana Menon by Ayyappa Paniker, can be described as 'translational' writing. In India, modernism, as a practice, differed from west, but it fulfilled a function in the socio-cultural contexts of Indian languages by transforming the relations between text and reader, and the modes of writing and reading.
Gopalakrishna Adiga or Gain An Madhav Muktibodh larger modernist tradition which accommodated ideologies and innovative experimental styles.
Key points
Modernity and Modernism
The purpose of discussion it may be broadly stated that Modernity designates an epochal period of wide-ranging transformations brought about by the advent of colonialism, capitalist economy, industrial mode of production, Western models of education, assimilation of rationalist temper, resurgence of rationalist spirit and emergence of social,political, legal, and educational institutions that constituted a normative subjectivity embodied with cosmopolitan and individualist world views.
It has also been argued that such a modular modernity, as envisaged in Western terms, brought about a rupture in the social and cultural life of India, separating its 'modern period' from what was 'pre-modern'.
The dynamics of literary expression and the apparatus of cultural transmission came to be redefined in the 'modern' period.
The project of modernity in India was implicated in colonialism and imperialism. As Dilip Chitre observes, 'what took nearly a century and half to happen in England, happened within a hurried half century' in Indian literature(1967,2). While introducing works of 8.5. Mardhekar(Marathi modernist), Chitre says 'The poet B.S. Mardhekar was the most remarkable product of the cross-pollination between the deeper, larger native tradition and contemporary world culture'.
It has been argued that the idea of a referential or self-validating literary text (P.P. Raveendran in Satchidanandan 2001,60-61), which is central to modernist poetry, is rooted in an ideology of the aesthetic that was complicit with colonialism. D.R.Najara) has pointed out that as nationalism became the ideology of the nation state. He adds,
'When ideologies like nationalism and spirituality become apparatuses of the state, a section of the intelligentsia has no option other than to seek refuge in bunkers of individualism'(Nagaraj in Ananthamurthy 1992, 108).
Literary/artistic movement of modernism
The term Modernism implies a literary/artistic movement that was characterized by experimentation, conscious rejection of the nationalist/ Romantic as well as popular.
In the European context, it signified a set of tendencies in artistic expression and writing style of the late 19th and early 20th century through a new aesthetic that was iconoclastic, insular and elitist. The modernism that emerged in Indian literature shared many of these defining features, its political affiliations and ideological orientations were markedly different. its postcolonial location, Indian modernism did not share the imperial or metropolitan aspirations of its European counterpart. The modernist phase in Indian language traditions has not been recognised as part of the global modernist movement.
The postcolonial context adds a complex political dimension to the aesthetic of Indian modernism.
How are we evaluate the modernism that emerged in the postcolonial phase in India? Critics such as Simon Gikandi,Susan Friedman, Laura Doyle
Laura Winkiel, and Aparna Dharwadker have argued that non-Western modernism are not mere derivative versions of European hegemonic practice. The problematic that informs this argument is manifest in the critiques of Eurocentric accounts of modernism.
The reception of Western modernist discourses in India.
The reception of Western modernist discourses in India was mediated by the dynamics of socio-political upheavals related to the formation of the nation state and the realignment of power structures in society. The oppositional content of the modernist sensibility functioned differently in each regional language.
In the Bengall context, as Amiya Dev observed, 'It was not because they imbibed modernism that the (modernist) Bengali writers turned away from Rabindranath; on the contrary, Modernism was the means by which they turned away from Rabindranath and they had to turn away, for their history demanded it'(in Ananthamurthy et al 1992,7).
R. Sasidhar writes,If European modernism was drawn between the and the reactive, in Kannada the precipitate modernism was drawn between the Brahmanical and the non-Brahmanical. Just as the euphoric and the reactive modernisms were part of the internal dynamics of modernism itself, so also the Brahmanical and the non-Brahmanical modernisms in Kannada were part and parcel of a that came as a reaction to the Nehrustan environment.
Translation the course of modernism in Indian Literature
Translation enables us to delineate the complex artistic and ideological undercurrents that shaped the course of modernism in Indian literature. The three representative modernist authors from three separate Indian literary traditions-Sudhindranath Dutta 1901-60) from Bengali, B.S.Mardhekar(1909-56) from marathi,and Ayyappa Paniker(1936-2004) from Malayalam.
Their essays elaborated the basic feature of a new aesthetic against the prevailing Romantic-nationalist or Romantic-mystical traditions.
Sabindranath Dusta translated Stephanie and Paul Valery into Bengali.
Buddhadeb Bose, rendered 112 poems of Charles Baudelaire's The Flowers of Evil into Bengali, apart from translating Rainer Maria Rilke, Friedrich Holderlin, Ezra Pounds, e.e. cummings., Wallace Stevens and Boris Pasternak. Ayyappa Panikey translated European poets into Malayalam.
Their discursive prose on matters of form in poetry seen as part of attempt to 'translate modernism' into Indian terms.The indigenous roots/routes of modernity and modernism Sudhindranath Dutta (1901-60)
The primacy of the word.In 'The Necessity of Poetry', Dutta argues that the persistence of poetry through the ages in all societies, particularly among the unsophisticated and the primitive, attest to its necessity.
Dutta believes that only the poetic mind, whatever its norm, can intuit associations where reason faces a void.The modernist poetic is argued in a persuasive manner in the context of the everyday world and its needs. "The Highbrow, he observes, agrees with Virginia Woolf that creative artists must from time to time seek shelter within the much maligned Ivory Tower'.
He invokes the art of Jamini Roy for having boldly shown the way forward by evolving a universal mode of representation, using elements of traditional Indian art(Chaudhuri 2008, 24).
Dutta highlights Eliot's commitment to tradition as revolutionary in the fullest sense of the term' He adds, 'But I am convinced that if civilization is to survive the atomic war, Mr. Eliot's ideal must become widely accepted, so that in the cases that may escape destruction it may be cherished through the 'interregnum'.
"The Camel-Bird' poem is about the crisis of perception that can only be remedied by reinventing oneself completely. As a modernist poem, Its voice of anguish is personal and intimate, bearing testimony to a personal crisis, its larger burden is the quest for humanity in a brutalized world, and the recovery of a sense of community in an uprooted world of isolated slaves.
Conclusion:
Translationenabled the displaced self of modernity to locate itself in a language that was intimately private and, also, outspokenly public. The idiom of their expression afforded the possibility of self-knowledge through epiphanies that brought 'momentary stay against confusion'. Thus, language became, for the modernists, the only reality that they could relate to. Their moment of recognition. enabled by the discourses of 'Western' modernism was postcolonial in its essence. The self- reflexive movement was also made possible by the carrying across of not content or form, but an interior mode of being that questioned the prevailing limits of freedom.
Article-8 Introduction: History in Translation by Tejaswini Niranjana
Abstract
The article examines the "positive" or "utopian" response to the postcolonial condition developed by Tejaswini Niranjana in Siting Translation: her attempt to harness translation in the service of decolonization.It traces a postcolonial myth moving from pre coloniality through the recent colonial past and current postcoloniality to an imagined future state of decolonization in order to contrast nationalist versions of that myth, with their emphasis on the purity of the precolonial and decolonized states, to postcolonialist versions, which in- sist that all four states are mixed.Niranjana draws on Walter Benjamin's "The Task of the Translator" in order to explore the ways in which translating, like rereading/re- writing history. involves a "citing" or "quoting" of words from one context to another, allowing translation to be used by colonists for purposes of colonial subjugation but also by postcolonial subjects for purposes of decolonization.Finally, the article contrasts Niranjana's Benjaminian sense of literalism as the best decolonizing translational mode with the variety of approaches explored by Vicente Rafael in Contracting Colonialism.
Key points
Situating Translation
Translation becomes a significant site for raising questions of representation, power, and historicity. Translation
translation becomes a significant site for raising questions of representation, power, and historicity.
The context is one of contesting
and contested stories attempting to account for, to recount, the asymmetry and inequality of relations between peoples, races, languages.
The discourses of philosophy, history, anthropology, philology, linguistics, and literary interpretation, the colonial "subject"-constructed through technologies or practices of power knowledge is brought into being within multiple discourses and on multiple sites. One such site is translation.
Philosophical notions of reality,representation, and knowledge.Reality is seen as something unproblematic, "out there"; knowledge involves a representation of this reality; and representation provides direct, unmediated access to a transparent reality.
Purposes of colonial domination; contend that, simultaneously, translation in the colonial context produces and supports a conceptual economy that works into the discourse of Western philosophy to function as a philosopheme.
Jacques Derrida suggests, the concepts of metaphysics are not bound by or produced solely within the "field" of philosophy. Rather, they come out of and circulate through various discourses in several registers, providing a "conceptual network in which philosophy itself has been constituted."
In forming a certain kind of subject, in presenting particular versions of the colonized, translation brings into being overarching concepts of reality and representation. These concepts, and what they allow us to assume, completely occlude the violence that accompanies the construction of the colonial subject.
Translation thus produces strategies of containment. By employing certain modes of representing the other-which it thereby also brings· into being-translation reinforces hegemonic versions of the colonized, helping them acquire the status of what Edward Said calls representations, or objects without history.
Thomas Babington Macaulay's 1835
dismissal of indigenous Indian learning as outdated and irrelevant, which prepared the way for the introduction of English education.
Translation functions as a transparent presentation of something that already exists, although the "original" is actually brought into being through translation.
Tejaswini concern here is to explore the place of translation in contemporary Euro-American literary theory (using the name of this "discipline" in a broad sense) through a set of interrelated readings.
Chaper2 "Translation" works in the traditional discourse of translation studies and in ethnographic writing. Discussing the last two, which are somewhat marginal to literary theory, may nevertheless help us sharpen our critique of translation. Caught in an idiom of fidelity and betrayal that assumes an unproblematic notion of representation, translation studies fail to ask questions about the historicity" Of translation; ethnography, on the other hand, has recently begun to question both the innocence of representation and the long-standing a symmetries of translation.
Chapters 3, 4, and 5, my main focus is the work of Paul de Man, Jacques Derrida, and Walter Benjamin (an earlier critic who is becoming increasingly important to post-structuralist thinkers). My analysis shows how translation functions as a "figure" in all three thinkers, becoming synonymous or associated with a major preoccupation in each: allegory or literature in de Man, the problematics of representation and intentionality in Derrida, and the question of materialist historiography in Benjamin.
Final chapter, with the help of a translation from Kannada, a South Indian language, into English, Niranjana discuss the "uses" of post-structuralism in post-colonial space.
The rethinking a task of great urgency for a postcolonial theory attempting to make sense of "subjects" already living in translation, Imaged and re-imaged by colonial ways of seeing-seeks to reclaim the notion of translation by deconstructing it and reinscribing its potential as a strategy of resistance.
Beginning to describe the post-colonial, we might reiterate some of the brute facts of colonialism.
Post-structuralism that is significant for a rethinking of translation is it's critique of historicism, which shows the genetic (searching for an origin) and teleological (positing a certain end) nature of traditional historiography.
Translation as Interpellation
Translator and scholar, Jones was responsible for the most influential introduction of a textualized India to Europe.
Warren Hastings, the governor-general, as patron. It was primarily through the
efforts of the members of the Asiatic Society, themselves administrators and officials of the East India Company's Indian Government, that translation would help" gather in" and "rope off" the Orient.
A historicist, teleological model of civilization that, coupled with a
notion of translation presupposing transparency of representation, helps construct a powerful version of the "Hindu" that later writers of different philosophical and political persuasions incorporated into their texts in an almost seamless fashion.
The most significant nodes of jones's works are (a) the need for translation by the European, since the natives are unreliable interpreters of their own laws and culture; (b) the desire to be a lawgiver, to give the Indians their "own" law; and
(c) the desire to "purify" Indian culture and speak on it's behalf.
The idea of the "submissive" Indians, their inability to be free, and the native laws that do not permit the question
of liberty to be raised are thus brought together in the concept of Asian despotism.
Two main kinds of translators of Indian literature existed in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries: admin-
istrators like William Jones and Christian missionaries like the Serampore Baptists William Carey and William Ward.
The critique of historicism may help us formulate a complex notion of historicity, which would include the" effective history" of the text; this phrase encompasses questions such as: Who uses/interprets the text? How is it used, and for what? Both the critique of representation and the critique of historicism empower the post-colonial theorist to undertake an analysis of what Homi Bhabha (following Foucault) has called technologies of colonial power.
The Question of "History "
Samual Weber charges Jameson with using the gesture of "Capitalizing History" to address the "challenge of post-structuralist thought". Weber's is one of the latest salvoes in the prolonged skirmishing between the defenders of "post-structuralism" and those who accuse it of denying "history". If the former polemicize against history as "phallogocentrism", the latter argue that is an "untranscendable horizon". Neither specify whether the "history" in question refers to a mode of writing history or to the "past" itself.
Tejaswini's central concern here is not to elaborate on the battle for "history" now being staged in Euro-American theory but to ask a series of questions from a strategically "partial" perspective that of an emergent post-colonial practice willing to profit from the insights of post-structuralism, while at the same time demanding ways of writing history in order to make sense of how subjectification operates.
Her purposes, I take historicity to mean although not unproblematically effective history, or that part of the past that is still operative in the present.I use the word historicity to avoid invoking History with a capital H, my concern being with "Local" practices of translation that require no overarching theory to contain them.
As Foucault declares, "effective history affirms knowledge as perspective", it may be seen as a radical kind of "presentism", which we may be able to work from. The facts of "history" are inescapable for the post-colonial, since attention to history is in a sense demanded by the post-colonial situation, post-colonial theory has to formulate a narrativizing strategy in addition to deconstructive one.
Louis Althusser's critique of historicism, which leads him, in Jameson's words, to formulate the notion that "history is a process without a telos or a subject", "a repudiation of master narratives and their twin categories of narrative closure (telos) and of character (subject of history)".
History and translation function, perhaps,under the same order of representation, truth, and presence, creating coherent and transparent texts through the repressions of difference, and participating thereby in the process of colonial domination. The double inscription Derrida mentions has a parallel in Walter Benjamin's strategy of citation or quotation.For Benjamin, the historical materialist quotes without quotation marks in a method akin to montage. It is one way of revealing the constellations a past age forms with the present without submitting to a simple historical continuum, to an order of origin and telos.
The hybrid therefore, involves translation, deformation displacement. The nation of hybridity, which is of great importance for a subaltern critique of historiography as well as for a critique of traditional notions of translation, is both "ambitious and historically complex".
To restrict "hybridity", or what called "living in translation", to a post- colonial elite is to deny the pervasiveness, however heterogeneous, of the transformations wrought across class boundaries by colonial and neocolonial domination.
With the invention of the printing press communication, literacy, and the state of knowledge completely changed providing the condition of possibility for reformation and the Enlightenment of the Age of Humanism and the rise of mass media.The impact of print and the "Discovery of the new world was predicted by networking technologies, which not only enabled the dissemination of knowledge and new culture and social sphere's.The invention of the electric telegraph, the heyday of colonization, the exploitation of the natural world, the electrification of cities, the rise of transnational finance, the internet, and "New" media of the radio, film, and television.Explosion of real-time social networking on hand-held devices these technologies have a common thing a contraction of time and space through the control of regulation of knowledge information and bodies In this regard, every technology has a dialectical underbelly, facilitating the potential democratization of information and exchange on the one hand and the ability to exercise exclusionary control and violence on the other."
Key Points
Nicholas Negroponte once asserted in his wildly optimistic book Being
Digital (Negroponte, 1995 ), for they always have an underbelly: mobile phones, social networking technologies, and perhaps even the hundred - dollar computer, will not only be used to enhance education, spread democracy, and enable global communication but will likely be used to perpetrate violence and even orchestrate genocide in much the same way that the radio and the railway did in the last century (despite the belief that both would somehow liberate humanity and join us all together in a happy, interconnected world that never existed before) (Presner, 2007 ).
Paul Gilroy analyzed in his study of “ the fatal junction of the concept of nationality with the concept of culture ” along the “ Black Atlantic, ” voyages of discovery, enlightenment, and progress also meant, at every moment, voyages of conquest, enslavement, and destruction. Indeed, this is why any discussion of technology cannot be separated from a discussion about formations of power and instrumentalized authority .
Today, the changes brought about by new communication technologies including, but hardly limited to, web - based media forms, locative technologies, digital archives, cloud computing, social networking, and mixed realities are so proximate and so sweeping in scope and signifi cance that they may appropriately be compared to the encounter with the New World and the dissemination of printing.
N. Katherine Hayles, I fi nd myself wondering as we ponder various possible futures for Comparative Literature in the second decade of the twenty - first century how to rouse ourselves from the “ somnolence [of] fi ve hundred years of print ”.
There is nothing neutral, objective,
or necessary about the medium of print; rather it is a medium that has a long and complex history connected to the formation of academic disciplines, institutions,epistemologies, and ideologies, not to mention conceptions of authorship and scholarly research.
we study as professors of Comparative Literature has been (and, to a large extent, still is) print, the burgeoning fi eld of electronic literature has necessitated a reconceptualization of “ materiality as the interplay between a text ’ s physical characteristics and its signifying practices, ” something that, as Hayles argues, allows us to consider texts as “ embodied entities ” and still foreground interpretative practices.
Walter Benjamin did in
The Arcades Project (1928 – 40; 1999), it is necessary, I believe, to interrogate both the media and methodologies for the study of literature, culture, and society.
Benjamin sought to employ the montage form to transform historical scholarship by refocusing attention on what it means to “ write ” history, digital media enable us to refocus on the media, methodologies, and affordances of print culture in the practice of Comparative Literature. At the same time, we must ask ourselves: What happens when print is no longer the normative or exclusive medium for producing literature and undertaking literary studies?
Situating the transformation of the literary vis - à - vis a set of issues that
have emerged over the past decade in the “ Digital Humanities.
The question that we need to confront in the fourth information age concerns the specificity of the digital medium vis - à - vis other media formats, the various kinds of cultural knowledge produced, the ways of analyzing it, the various platforms that support it, and, finally, the modes of authorship and reception that facilitate new architectures of participation and new architectures of power. As a way of addressing such questions, I will briefly discuss three futures for “ Comparative Literature ” in the Digital Age. I do not consider them to exist in parallel or isolation but rather as additive and synergistic.
Comparative Media Studies
Comparative Literature has been
positively infl ected by the so - called “ visual turn ” of the twentieth century, opening the horizon of comparative literary and textual studies to the fi elds of art history, photography, fi lm, and, perhaps to a somewhat lesser extent, television, digital media offer a more fundamental challenge since they not only transform the media assumptions built into the works we traditionally study but also the scholarly environments that we inhabit, the analytic and technical tools that we employ to perform our research, and the platforms we use to create and disseminate our work. More than just another medium, digital media are always already hypermedia and hypertextual.
Both of the foregoing terms were originally coined in 1965 by the visionary media theorist, Theodor Nelson, in his early articulations of the conceptual infrastructure for the
World Wide Web. For Nelson, a hypertext is a:
" Body of written or pictorial material interconnected in such a complex way that it could not conveniently be presented or represented on paper Such a system could grow indefinitely, gradually including more and more of the world ’ s written knowledge."
Hypertextual or hypermedia documents deploy a multiplicity of media forms in aggregate systems that allow for annotation, indefi nite growth, mutability, and non - linear
navigation.
How, then, might Comparative Literature be practiced when literature and scholarly work are created, exchanged, and critiqued in a multimodal environment such as the Web?Comparative Literature as Comparative Media Studies it investigates all media as information and knowledge systems that are bound up with histories of power, institutions, and governing and regulatory bodies which legitimate and authorize certain utterances, while screening out and dismissing others.
Comparative Media Studies thus enables us to return to some of the most fundamental questions of our fi eld with new urgency: Who is an author? What is a work? What constitutes a text, particularly in an environment in which any text is readerly and writerly by potentially anyone? (Barthes, 1986 )
Comparative Data Studies
In order to pursue quantitative questions such as statistical correlations, publishing histories, and semantic analyses as well as
qualitative, hermeneutical questions.
Lev Manovich and Noah Wardrip - Fruin, the fi eld of “ cultural analytics ” has emerged over the past five years to bring the tools of high end computational analysis and data visualization to dissect large scale cultural data sets.Here is not to pitch "close" hermeneutical readings against “ distant ” data mappings, but rather to appreciate the synergistic possibilities between a hyper - localized, deep analysis and a macrocosmic
view.
Comparative Data Studies allows us to use the computational tools of cultural analytics to enhance literary scholarship precisely by creating models, visualizations, maps, and semantic webs of data that are simply too large to read or comprehend using unaided human faculties.
The “ data ” of Comparative Data Studies is constantly expanding in
terms of volume, data type, production and reception platform, and analytic
strategy.
Comparative Authorship and Platform Studies
The radically “ democratizing ” claims of the web and information technologies should certainly be critically interrogated, I think that it is incontestable that the barriers for voicing participation, creating and sharing content, and even developing software have been signifi cantly lowered when compared to the world of print. And more than that, collaborative authorship, peer -to - peer sharing of content, and crowd sourced evaluation of data are the hallmarks of the participatory web known as the world of Web 2.0.
Digital Humanities Manifesto, which
sought to perform collaborative authorship by utilizing the blogging engine, Commentpress.
The knowledge platforms cannot be simply “ handed off ” to the technicians, publishers, and librarians, as if the curation of knowledge the physical and virtual arrangement of information as an argument through multimedial constellations is somehow not the domain of literary scholars.
various issues of Vectors , a multimodal, multimedia humanities journal in which each “ article ” is a project that explores the complex interrelation between form and content, underscoring the “ immersive and experiential dimensions of emerging scholarly vernaculars across media platforms.
Wikipedia, a revolutionary knowledge production and editing platform.
While it is easy to dismiss Wikipedia as amateurish and unreliable or to scoff at its lack of scholarly rigor, I want to conclude by suggesting that it is actually a model for rethinking collaborative research and the dissemination of knowledge in the Humanities and at institutions of higher learning, which are all too often fixated on individual training, discrete disciplines, and isolated achievement and accomplishment .
Wikipedia is already the most comprehensive, representative, and pervasive participatory platform for knowledge production ever created by humankind. In my opinion, that is worth some pause and refl ection, perhaps even by scholars in a future disciplinary incarnation of Comparative Literature.
Conclusion
This Article has mainly focuses on 21 century in terms digital humanities after discussing various arguments we come to know that date it has than more three hundred millions edits forty seven languages. It is worth some pause and reflection in a future disciplinary incarnation of comparative literature. This research render this world as a world and produce knowledge about who we are, where we live and what that means.
Seventh Article :-On Translating a Tamil Poem by A. K. Ramanuja
Abstract
Translation is the wandering existence of a text in a perpetual exile' -J. Hillis Miller.Western literary criticism provides for the guilt of translations for coming into being after the original; the temporal sequentiality is held as a proof of diminution of literary authenticity of translations. The strong sense of individuality given to Western individuals through systematic philosophy and the logic of social history makes them view
translation as an intrusion of ‘the other’iv (sometimes pleasurable). This intrusion is desirable to the extent that it helps define one’s own identity, but not beyond that point. It is of course natural for the monolingual European cultures to be acutely conscious of the act of translation.
Key Points
The philosophy of individualism and the metaphysics of guilt, however, render European literary historiography incapable of grasping the origins of literary traditions.
Most revolutionary events in the history of English style has been the
authorized translation of the Bible.
The recovery of the original spirit of Christianity was thus sought by Protestant England through an act of translation.
Chaucer was translating the style of Boccacio into English when he created his Canterbury Tales. When Dryden and Pope wanted to recover a sense of order, they used the tool of translation. Similar attempts were made in other European languages such as German and French.
Fact that most literary traditions originate in translation and gain
substance through repeated acts of translation, it would be useful for a theory of literary history if a supporting theory of literary translation were available.
Most of the primary issues relating to ‘form’ and ‘meaning’ too have not been settled in relation to translation. No critic has taken any well-defined position about the exact placement of translations in literary history. Do they belong to the history of the ‘T’ languages or do they belong to the history of the ‘S’ languages? Or do they form an independent tradition all by themselves? This ontological uncertainty which haunts translations has rendered translation study a haphazard activity which devotes too much energy discussing problems of conveying the original meaning in the altered structure.
Roman Jakobson in his essay on the linguistics of translation proposed a
threefold classification of translations: (1) Those from one verbal order to another verbal order within the same language system.
(2) Those from one language system to another language system.
(3) Those from a verbal order to another system of sign.
Structural linguistics considers language as a system of signs, arbitrarily developed, that tries to cover the entire range of significance available to the culture of that language.
The concept of a ‘translating consciousness’v and communities of people possessing it are no mere notions.
In most Third World countries, where a dominating colonial language has acquired a privileged place, such communities do exist. In India several languages are simultaneously used by language communities as if these languages formed a continuous spectrum of signs and significance.
The use of two or more different languages in translation activity cannot be understood properly through studies of foreign-language acquisition.
The field is stratified in terms of value based indicators L1 and L2, though in reality language-learning activity may seem very natural in a country like India.
Chomsky’s linguistics the concept of semantic universals plays an important role. However, his level of abstraction marks the farthest limits to which the monolingual Saussurean linguistic materialism can be stretched.
In actual practice, even in Europe, the translating consciousness treats the SL and TL as parts of a larger and continuous spectrum of various intersecting systems of verbal signs.
J.C. Catford presents a comprehensive statement of theoretical formulation about the linguistics of translation in A Linguistic Theory of Translation, in which he seeks to isolate various linguistic levels of translation.
‘Translation is an operation performed on languages: a process of substituting a text in one language for a text in another; clearly, then, any theory of translation must draw upon a theory of language – a general linguistic theory’.
The privileged discourse of general linguistics today is closely interlinked with developments in anthropology, particularly after Durkheim and Lévi-Strauss.
1)Humanistic knowledge into a threefold hierarchy: comparative studies for Europe.
2)Orientalism for the Orient. 3)Anthropology for the rest of the world.
The ‘discovery’ of Sanskrit by Sir William Jones, historical linguistics in Europe depended heavily on
Orientalism.
Translation can be seen as an attempt to bring a given language system in its entirety as close as possible to the areas of significance that it shares with another given language or
languages.
The translation problem is not just a linguistic problem. It is an aesthetic and ideological problem with an important bearing on the question of literary history.
The problems in translation study are, therefore, very much like those in literary history.
The problems of the relationship between origins and sequentiality.
The problem of origin has not been tackled satisfactorily.
Question of origins of
literary traditions will have to be viewed differently by literary communities with ‘translating consciousness’.
The fact that Indian literary communities do possess this translating consciousness can be brought home effectively by reminding ourselves that the very foundation of modern Indian literatures was laid through acts of translation, whether by Jayadeva, Hemcandra, Michael Madhusudan Dutta, H.N. Apte or Bankim Chandra Chatterjee.
Christian metaphysics that conditions reception of translation in the Western world.
Conclusion
Let us allude to Indian metaphysics in conclusion. When the soul passes from one body to another, it does not lose any of its essential significance. Indian philosophies of the relationship between form and essence, structure and significance are guided by this metaphysics.Indian literary theory does not lay undue emphasis on originality. If originality were made a criterion of literary excellence, a majority of Indian classics would fail the test. The true test is the writer's capacity to transform, to translate, to restate, to revitalize the original. And in that sense Indian literary traditions are essentially traditions of translation.
Sixth Article:- “Translation and literary history: An Indian view” - Ganesh Devy
Abstract
The article or an excerpt if to say so with reference to the book titled as 'The Collected Essays of A. K. Ramanujan' (1999)- titled as 'On Translating a Tamil Poem discusses the difficulties in translating one literary text having its origin in native or particular language into the foreign language on grounds of the diverse nature of phonetics, linguistics, and grammatical aspects of the selected languages which are tabled for translating the text into them. The essay gives meticulous accounts of difficulties and variation with ample examples from Tamil Poetry and English Rhymes while translating selected text of one language into the other one/s. It serves as the pre-reading piece for any translator of the world working within or without the boundaries of academics or is a freelancer translator. The author has objectively put the practical exertion of translation and become the part of the vast field of Translation Studies.
Key points
'How does one translate a poem from another , another culture, another language? The poems translated from Tamil were written two thousand years ago in a comer of south India, in a Dravidian language relatively untouched by the other classical language of India, Sanskrit.
Hebrew in the Middle East, and Chinese in the Far East were Tamil's contemporaries. Over two thousand Tamil poems of different lengths, by over four hundred poets, arranged in nine anthologies.
Translation, the transport of poems from classical Tamil to modern English; the hazards, the damages in transit, the secret paths, and the lucky bypasses.
The chief difficulty of translation is its impossibility. Frost once even identified poetry as that which is lost in translation.
Here is a poem from an early Tamil,anthology,Airikuruniiru 203, in modern Tamil script (Ramanujan 1985, 230).
How shall we divide up and translate this poem? What are the units of
translation? We may begin with the sounds.
Tamil has six nasal consonants: a labial, adental, an alveolar, a retroflex,
a palatal and a velar-m, n, n. ii, n, n-three of which are not distinctive in English. How shall we translate a six-way system into a three-way
English system (m, n, n)?
Tamil has long and short vowels, but English (or most English dialects) have diphthongs and glides.
Tamil has no initial consonant clusters,English words may end in stops .
Phonologies are systems unto themselves (even as grammatical, syntactic, lexical, semantic systems).
It is impossible to translate the phonology of one language into that of another even in a related, culturally neighboring language.
The syntax, the meanings. the poem itself, as in this delightful example of a French phonological translation of an English nursery rhyme:
Humpty Dumpty Sat on a wall
Humpty Dumpty
Had a great fall
And all the king's horses And all the king's men
Couldn't put Humpty Dumpty
Together again.
French Phonological Translation
Un petit d'un petit
S'etonne aux Halles
Un petit d'un petit
Ah! degrés te
Indolent qui ne sort cesse
Indolent qui ne se mène
Qu'importe un petit d'un petit Tout Gai de Regennes.
We should translate the metric system. In the first word of the above poem, The first syllable is heavy because it is closed (an-), the second is heavy because it has a long vowel (-nay). There is nothing comparable in English to this way of counting feet and combinations (marked in the
'text above by spaces).
English has a long tradition of end-rhymes-but Tamil has a long tradition of second syllable consonant rhymes.
One poetry would be the innovation of another.
Tamil has no copula verbs for equational sentences in the present tense, as in English, e.g., 'Tom is a teacher'; no degrees of in adjectives as in English, e.g., 'sweet, sweeter, sweetest; no articles like 'a, an, the' etc. Tamil expresses the semantic equivalents of these grammatical devices by various other means.
French requires you to choose a gender for every noun, but English does not. The lies and ambiguities of one language are not those of another.
Evans-Pritchard, the anthropologist, used to say: If you translate all the European arguments for atheism into Azande, they would come out as arguments for God in Azande.
No translation can be 'literal,' or 'word for word'. That is where the impossibility lies. The only possible translation is a 'free' one.
Tamil syntax is mostly left branching. English syntax is, by and large, rightward. Even a date like 'the 19th of June, 1988,' when translated into Tamil, would look like 1988, June, 19. A phrase like:-
A B C D E
The man who came from Michigan
would be 'Michigan-from come-[past tense]-who man':
E D C B A
michigan-irundu v and-a manidan.
The Tamil sentence is the mirror image of the English one: what is A B CDE in the one would be (by and large) EDCBA in Tamil.
If poetry is made out of, among other things, 'the best words in the best order', and the best orders of the two languages are the mirror images of each other, what is a translator to do?
The most obvious parts of language cited frequently for their utter untranslatability are the lexicon and the semantics of words.For lexicons are culture-specific. Terms for fauna, flora, caste distinctions, kinship systems, body parts, even the words that denote numbers, are culturally loaded.
when the elements of a system may be similar in two languages, like father. mother, brother, mother-in-law, etc., in kinship, the system of relations (say. who can be a mother-in-law. who can by law or custom marry whom) and the feelings traditionally encouraged.
The entire poetic tradition, its rhetoric. Entire taxonomy a classification of reality. as part of its stock-in-trade. The five landscapes of the Tamil area, characterized by hills. seashores, agricultural areas, wastelands, and pastoral fields.
Instance. The first poem we cited 1s a poem---kurinci a plant that grows six thousand to eight thousand feet above sea level representing the mountains. [he night. the season of' dew. the mood of first love, and the lovers' first secret sexual union. In the war poems the same landscape is the scene for another kind or clandestine action:a night attack on a fort set in the hills.
'An infinite use of finite means'.When one translates, one is translating not only Tamil, its phonology, grammar and semantics, but this entire intertextual web, this intricate yet lucid second language of landscapes which holds together natural forms with cultural ones in a code, a grammar, a rhetoric, and a poetics.
English tries to preserve the order and syntax of : themes, not of single words: (I) his land's waler, followed by (2) leaf- : covered waterholes, and (3) muddied by animals. I still could not bring the word 'sweeter' (iniya) into the middle of the poem as the original does.
The love poem gets parodied, subverted and played with in comics, poems and poems about poems.
Single poem is part of a set, a family of sets,a landscape (,one of five), a genre (puram,Comic or religious). The intertextuality is concentric on a pattern of memberships as well as neighborhoods, of likenesses and unlikenesses. Somehow a translator has to translate each poem in ways that suggest these interests, dialogues,and networks.
1)Universals:-
If there were no universals in which languages participate and of which all particular languages were selections and combinations, no language learning, translation, comparative studies or cross-cultural understanding of even the most meager kind would be possible.Both signifiers (e.g.. sound systems. grammar, semantics. rhetoric, and poetics) and the signified.
2)Interiorised contexts:-
However culture-specific the details of a poem are. poems like the ones I have been discussing interiorise the entire culture. Lexicons and charting the fauna and flora of landscapes.Tamil poem, is also translating this kind of intertextual web, the meaning-making of colophons and commentaries that surround and contextualize poems.
3)Systematicity:-
If one chooses not to translate all the poems, one chooses poems that cluster together, that illuminate one another, so that allusions, contrasts, and collective designs are suggested. One's selection then be- -comes a metonymy for their world, representing it. Here intertextuality is not the problem, but the solution.
4) Structural mimicry:-
Against all this background, the work of translating single poems in their particularity is the chief work of the translator.A Chinese emperor ordered a tunnel to be bored through a great mountain. 'But what happens if they don't meet?''If they don't meet, we will have two tunnels instead of one. So too, if the representation in another language is not close enough, but still succeeds in 'carrying' the poem in some sense, we will have two poems instead of one.
Conclusion
Translation is to 'metaphor, to 'Carry Across".Translations are transposition, renactments,interpretations.Some elements of original cannot be transposed at all.Textures are harder to translate than structures, linear order more difficult than syntax, lines more difficult than larger patterns.
The Translation must not only represent, but re- present, the original.
A translator is an ``artist on oath".The representation in another language is not close enough, but still succeeds in 'carrying' the poem in some sense, we will have two poems instead of one.
